What governments did, and what it cost the country

What was done

The government of Jammu and Kashmir removed Sheikh Abdullah from the office of Prime Minister in 1953 and formed a new government under Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad, as stated in a later court judgment [11]. He was also arrested, as stated in a 2000 Lok Sabha debate [10]. He then faced trial in the Kashmir Conspiracy Case, where the prosecution alleged that he and others incited subversive activities against the State [1].

What it meant for the country

The sources record the removal and prosecution of a chief minister but give no figures on loss, detention duration, or rights outcomes, so the consequences for the country cannot be established from this record.

• The sources do not state what happened to people, money, rights or institutions as a result of the 1953 dismissal and arrest. The only later constitutional fact recorded is that a new Constitution for Jammu and Kashmir was framed on 26 January 1957 [11]. [11]

Step by step

1. 1953
   Sheikh Mohamad Abdulla was dismissed from office and a new government was formed with Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad as the Prime Minister, as recorded in a later court judgment [11]. [11]
2. 1953
   A 2000 Lok Sabha debate recounted the history: the election of Karan Singh as Sadr-e-Riyasat and Sheikh Abdullah as Prime Minister in 1952, followed by Sheikh Abdullah's dismissal and arrest, and the appointment of Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad [10]. [10]
3. 1963-12-31
   The Jammu and Kashmir High Court gave judgment in State vs Sheikh Mohamad Abdullah and Ors in the Kashmir Conspiracy Case. The court dealt with applications arising from orders of the Additional Sessions Judge, Jammu, about prosecution evidence. The judgment records that a prosecution witness alleged Kh Shah and Sheikh Mohamad Abdullah and others incited him to indulge in subversive activities against the State. The court upheld the trial judge's refusal to allow certain letters to be produced by the prosecution [1]. [1]

The documents

1. [1] State vs Sheikh Mohamad Abdullah And Ors. on 31 December, 1963 Court, indiankanoon.org
2. [2] Bhugiram Hazarika vs Supdt. Of Police And Ors. on 10 June, 1953 Court, indiankanoon.org
3. [3] Sadar Sheikh And Ors. vs The State on 12 June, 1953 Court, indiankanoon.org
4. [4] Punjab National Bank Ltd vs Employees Of The Bank on 10 April ... Court, indiankanoon.org
5. [5] Tara Singh Uijagar Singh vs Union Of India on 22 September, 1953 Court, indiankanoon.org
6. [6] Ebrahim Aboobaker And Anr. vs Tek Chand Dolwani And Ors. on ... Court, indiankanoon.org
7. [7] Hamidullah (Dead) By His Legal ... vs Sheikh Abdullah And Ors. on 25 ... Court, indiankanoon.org
8. [8] Dharam Dutt Dhawan vs Ram Lal Suri And Sons And Anr. on 8 July, 1953 Court, indiankanoon.org
9. [9] Sodhi Shamsher Singh And Ors. vs The State Of Pepsu And Ors. on 1 ... Court, indiankanoon.org
10. [10] Discussion Regarding Resolution Passed By Jammu And Kashmir ... Court, indiankanoon.org
11. [11] State Of Jammu And Kashmir vs Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad on 6 May ... Court, indiankanoon.org
12. [12] Sadar Sheikh And Ors. vs The State on 12 June, 1953 Court, indiankanoon.org

Compiled from the documents cited, 1 Oct 2026

What was done

The Press Commission, appointed after the Prime Minister's 1951 commitment and a 1952 resolution by the Indian Federation of Working Journalists, enquired into the state of the Press and submitted its report on July 14, 1954. Parliament then passed the Working Journalists (Industrial Disputes) Act, 1955 (assented March 12, 1955) and the Working Journalists (Conditions of Service) and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1955 (assented December 20, 1955), incorporating the Commission's recommendations on notice, bonus, Sunday rest, leave, provident fund and gratuity, and leaving wage fixation to a Wage Board. The Central Government constituted the Wage Board on May 2, 1956.

What it meant for the country

The Press Commission's work led to statutory rights for working journalists and the establishment of the Press Council of India in 1966.

• Working journalists gained statutory conditions of service: minimum period of notice, bonus, Sunday rest, leave, provident fund and gratuity were incorporated in the 1955 Act from the Press Commission's recommendations. [2]
• A Wage Board was constituted on May 2, 1956 to fix rates of wages for working journalists, with equal representatives of employers and working journalists. [2]
• The Press Council of India, a statutory and autonomous body, was established in 1966 on the recommendation of the first Press Commission. [1]

Step by step

1. 1951
   During the debate in Parliament on the Constitution (First Amendment) Bill, 1951, the Prime Minister said he was prepared to appoint a committee or a commission, including representatives of the Press, to examine the state of the Press and its content. [2]
2. 1952-04
   At its session held in April 1952 at Calcutta, the Indian Federation of Working Journalists adopted a resolution for the appointment of a Commission to enquire into the conditions of the Press in India with a view to improving its place, status and functioning in the new democratic set up. [2]
3. 1954-07-14
   The Press Commission completed its enquiry and submitted its report. [2]
4. 1955-03-12
   Parliament passed the Working Journalists (Industrial Disputes) Act, 1955 (I of 1955), which received the assent of the President. It was an Act to apply the Industrial Disputes Act, 1947, to working journalists. [2]
5. 1955-12-20
   The Working Journalists (Conditions of Service) and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1955 (45 of 1955) received the assent of the President. The recommendations of the Press Commission regarding minimum period of notice, bonus, Sunday rest, leave, and provident fund and gratuity were all incorporated in the Bill; the fixation of minimum rates of wages was left to a minimum wage Board to be constituted by the Central Government. The Working Journalists (Industrial Disputes) Act, 1955 was repealed by section 20 of this Act. [2]
6. 1956-05-02
   By a notification dated May 2, 1956, the Central Government constituted a Wage Board under section 8 of the Act for fixing rates of wages in respect of working journalists, consisting of equal representatives of employers in relation to newspaper establishments and working journalists. [2]
7. 1956-07-30
   The Central Government published by a notification in the Gazette of India the Working Journalists Wage Board Rules, 1956. [2]
8. 1957-04-22
   A meeting of the Wage Board was held from April 22 to 24, 1957, in the office of the Wage Board at Bombay. [2]
9. 1966
   The Press Council of India was established on the basis of the recommendation of the first Press Commission for the setting up of a statutory and autonomous body. [1]
10. 1967-10-27
    The Central Government by an order dated October 27, 1967 accepted substantially the recommendations of the Wage Board constituted under section 9 of the Working Journalists (Conditions of Service) and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1955, in respect of wages of working journalists. [6]

The documents

1. [1] Need To Constitute A Media Commission To Examine And Report ... Court, indiankanoon.org
2. [2] Express Newspapers (Private) Ltd. And ... vs The Union Of ... Court, indiankanoon.org
3. [3] Vol (1) And Vol (3) - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org
4. [4] P.N. Films Ltd. vs Union Of India on 6 September, 1954 Court, indiankanoon.org
5. [5] M. P. Sharma And Others vs Satish Chandra, District ... on 15 ... Court, indiankanoon.org
6. [6] Press Trust Of India And Anr vs Union Of India & Anr on 23 ... Court, indiankanoon.org
7. [7] The Working Journalists And Other Newspaper Employees ... Court, indiankanoon.org
8. [8] The Working Journalists (Conditions Of Service) And ... Court, indiankanoon.org
9. [9] Section 2 (f) in The Working Journalists And Other Newspaper ... Court, indiankanoon.org
10. [10] Section 2 in The Working Journalists And Other Newspaper ... Court, indiankanoon.org
11. [11] Section 12 in The Working Journalists and other Newspaper ... Court, indiankanoon.org
12. [12] Section 2 (dd) in The Working Journalists And Other Newspaper ... Court, indiankanoon.org

Compiled from the documents cited, 1 Oct 2026

What was done

Parliament enacted the Special Marriage Act, 1954, replacing the Special Marriage Act, 1872. The Act allows any two persons to marry under its provisions if they meet conditions on age, mental capacity, existing spouse and prohibited relationships; it sets out a notice and objection procedure; it allows registration of marriages already celebrated in other forms; and it applies the Indian Succession Act to property of couples married under it. In 2015 and 2018, members moved and the Lok Sabha adopted motions to introduce bills amending sections 5 and 4 respectively.

What it meant for the country

The Act gave Indians a civil marriage option and secular succession rules, as its provisions show.

• Section 4 of the Act allowed a marriage between any two persons to be solemnized under the Act, notwithstanding any other law relating to solemnization of marriages, if conditions on spouse, mental capacity, age and prohibited relationship were met. [4]
• Section 21 provided that succession to the property of a person married under the Act and of the issue of such marriage would be regulated by the Indian Succession Act, 1925, ignoring community-specific restrictions and omitting Parsi intestate rules. [5]
• Section 18 provided that children born after the date of the ceremony of a marriage registered under the Act would be deemed legitimate. [6]
• The Act allowed marriages already celebrated in other forms to be registered under it, turning a religious marriage into a civil marriage if conditions were met. [1][11]
• The Act required a written notice of intended marriage, publication of the notice, and allowed objections to be made, with the Marriage Officer required to inquire within 30 days and an appeal to the district court. [1][3]

Step by step

1. 1954
   Parliament enacted the Special Marriage Act, 1954, replacing the Special Marriage Act, 1872, which did not recognize inter-religious marriages. [12][1]
2. 2015-04-24
   In the Lok Sabha, Shri Rabindra Kumar Jena moved for leave to introduce a Bill further to amend the Special Marriage Act, 1954 (amendment of section 5); the motion was adopted. [8]
3. 2018-08-03
   In the Lok Sabha, Shri Gopal Shetty moved for leave to introduce a Bill further to amend the Special Marriage Act, 1954 (amendment of section 4); the motion was adopted. [9]

The documents

1. [1] The Special Marriage Act, 1954 - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org
2. [2] Hindu Marriage Act,1955 And Special Marriage Act, 1954 Court, indiankanoon.org
3. [3] Section 5 in The Special Marriage Act, 1954 - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org
4. [4] Section 4 in The Special Marriage Act, 1954 - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org
5. [5] Section 21 in The Special Marriage Act, 1954 - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org
6. [6] Section 18 in The Special Marriage Act, 1954 - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org
7. [7] The Special Marriage Act, 1954 - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org
8. [8] Introduction Of The Special Marriage (Amendment) Bill, 2015 ... Court, indiankanoon.org
9. [9] Introduction Of The Special Marriage Amendment Bill, 2018 ... Court, indiankanoon.org
10. [10] Law Of Foreign Marriages - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org
11. [11] 212Th Report On Laws Of Civil Marriages In India - A Proposal ... Court, indiankanoon.org
12. [12] M vs A on 23 March, 2018 - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org

Compiled from the documents cited, 1 Oct 2026

What was done

Parliament passed the Constitution (Fourth Amendment) Act, 1955, which rewrote Article 31A to shield land reform, mining, company management and state-monopoly laws from fundamental-rights challenges; added six laws to the Ninth Schedule; substituted Article 305; and made compensation for compulsory acquisition non-justiciable.

What it meant for the country

The amendment curtailed property owners' fundamental-rights challenges to land reform and acquisition laws and made the adequacy of compensation non-justiciable, with no offsetting gain quantified in the sources.

• Owners of estates, mines, companies or other property affected by the newly protected categories could no longer ask courts to strike down the law under Articles 14, 19 or 31. [9]
• The adequacy of compensation for compulsory acquisition became non-justiciable, so courts could not review whether compensation was sufficient. [17]
• The six Acts added to the Ninth Schedule received complete retrospective validation, extinguishing pending and future fundamental-rights challenges to them. [12]

Step by step

1. 1954-12-17
   The Constitution (Fourth Amendment) Bill was presented and published; its Statement of Objects and Reasons said it would amend Articles 31, 31A and 305 and the Ninth Schedule. [9][17]
2. 1955-04-27
   The Constitution (Fourth Amendment) Act, 1955 (Act 4 of 1955) came into force. It substituted a new clause (1) in Article 31A, amended clause (2), substituted Article 305, and added entries after entry 13 in the Ninth Schedule. [9]
3. 1973-04-24
   The Supreme Court delivered Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala, which developed the basic structure doctrine and later became the basis for limiting Ninth Schedule immunity for laws inserted after this date. [6][8]

The documents

1. [1] Section 257 in THE CONSTITUTION (SIXTY-SIXTH AMENDMENT) ACT, 1990 Court, indiankanoon.org
2. [2] THE CONSTITUTION (SIXTY-SIXTH AMENDMENT) ACT, 1990 Court, indiankanoon.org
3. [3] Section 9 in West Bengal Land Reforms Act, 1955 - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org
4. [4] West Bengal Land Reforms Act, 1955 - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org
5. [5] Section 284 in THE CONSTITUTION (SEVENTY-EIGHTH AMENDMENT ... Court, indiankanoon.org
6. [6] Section 66 in THE CONSTITUTION (TWENTY-NINTH AMENDMENT) ACT, 1972 Court, indiankanoon.org
7. [7] Fourth Amendment Act 1955 Overview | PDF | Eminent Domain ... Web, scribd.com
8. [8] The Ninth Schedule and Judicial Scrutiny of Land-Reform Laws — Land Law ... Web, medha-academy.in
9. [9] THE CONSTITUTION (FOURTH AMENDMENT) ACT, 1955 - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org
10. [10] Section 1 in THE CONSTITUTION (FOURTH AMENDMENT) ACT, 1955 Court, indiankanoon.org
11. [11] Section 3 in THE CONSTITUTION (FOURTH AMENDMENT) ACT, 1955 Court, indiankanoon.org
12. [12] Section 4 in THE CONSTITUTION (FOURTH AMENDMENT) ACT, 1955 Court, indiankanoon.org
13. [13] Section 2 in THE CONSTITUTION (FOURTH AMENDMENT) ACT, 1955 Court, indiankanoon.org
14. [14] Section 4 in THE CONSTITUTION (FOURTH AMENDMENT) ACT, 1955 Court, indiankanoon.org
15. [15] THE CONSTITUTION (FORTY-FIFTH AMENDMENT) ACT, 1980 Court, indiankanoon.org
16. [16] THE CONSTITUTION (EIGHTH AMENDMENT) ACT, 1959 Court, indiankanoon.org
17. [17] Section 20 in THE CONSTITUTION (FOURTH AMENDMENT) ACT, 1955 Court, indiankanoon.org
18. [18] Constitution of India - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org

Compiled from the documents cited, 1 Oct 2026