What governments did, and what it cost the country

What was done

Parliament enacted the Essential Commodities Act, 1955, giving the central government power to regulate or prohibit production, supply, distribution and trade in scheduled essential commodities, control prices, require sale of stocks to the government, delegate powers to states, and seize and confiscate commodities for contravention. In 1981 Parliament added temporary special provisions for hoarding and blackmarketing, making offences non-bailable with minimum three months' imprisonment and summary trial by Special Courts.

What it meant for the country

The documents establish the Act's coercive powers — price control, compulsory sale, confiscation, non-bailable offences with minimum imprisonment — but do not record their actual consequences in money, people or rights.

• The Act authorises the central government to regulate or prohibit production, supply, distribution and trade in essential commodities, control the price at which they may be bought or sold, and require anyone holding stock to sell it to the government. [1][2][6]
• The Act authorises seizure of essential commodities and confiscation by the district Collector, including any package, covering, receptacle, animal, vehicle, vessel or other conveyance used in carrying them. [2][6]
• The 1981 special provisions made all offences under the Act non-bailable and imposed minimum mandatory imprisonment of not less than three months, with trial in a summary way by Special Courts. [10]
• The central government may add or remove commodities from the Schedule by notification in the Official Gazette, so the scope of what counts as an essential commodity can change by executive action. [8]

Step by step

1. 1955-04-01
   The Essential Commodities Act, 1955 (Act 10 of 1955) came into force. It provides, in the interest of the general public, for the control of the production, supply and distribution of, and trade and commerce in, certain commodities. [2][5]
2. 1955-04-01
   Section 16 of the Act repealed the Essential Commodities Ordinance, 1955 and any other state law controlling production, supply, distribution and trade in essential commodities. Orders, licences, permits and directions made under the repealed laws were deemed to continue under the new Act. [4]
3. 1981
   Parliament enacted the Essential Commodities (Special Provisions) Act, 1981, making temporary amendments to the principal Act to deal with hoarding and blackmarketing: summary trial of offences, Special Courts, minimum mandatory imprisonment of not less than three months, all offences non-bailable, and sale of seized commodities through fair price shops. [10]
4. 1982-09-01
   The Essential Commodities (Special Provisions) Act, 1981 was enforced in all States and Union territories except the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Arunachal Pradesh, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Lakshadweep and Mizoram. [10]
5. 1992-08-27
   The duration of the 1981 special provisions was extended from ten years to fifteen years, with retrospective effect from 27 August 1992, by Act 34 of 1993. [10]

The documents

1. [1] Section 3 in The Essential Commodities Act, 1955 - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org
2. [2] THE ESSENTIAL COMMODITIES ACT, 1955 ARRANGEMENT OF SECTIONS Official, thc.nic.in
3. [3] The Essential commodities act 1955 - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org
4. [4] Section 16 in The Essential Commodities Act, 1955 - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org
5. [5] THE ESSENTIAL COMMODITIES ACT, 1955 ARRANGEMENT OF SECTIONS Official, indiacode.nic.in
6. [6] The Essential Commodities Act, 1955 - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org
7. [7] Section 5 in The Essential Commodities Act, 1955 - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org
8. [8] Section 2A in The Essential Commodities Act, 1955 - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org
9. [9] THE ESSENTIAL COMMODITIES ACT, 19551 Official, goacivilsupplies.gov.in
10. [10] The Essential Commodities (Special Provisions) Act, 1981 Court, indiankanoon.org
11. [11] Section 6B in The Essential Commodities Act, 1955 - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org
12. [12] Section 1955 in The Essential commodities act 1955 Court, indiankanoon.org

Compiled from the documents cited, 1 Oct 2026

What was done

Parliament first shelved a single Hindu Code Bill in 1951, then from 1955 to 1956 passed the reform as four separate statutes. In 2005 it amended the Hindu Succession Act to make a daughter a coparcener by birth with the same rights and liabilities as a son.

What it meant for the country

The record shows a net gain in rights: Hindu women became full owners of their property, and daughters acquired equal rights as sons in joint family property through the 2005 amendment.

• Hindu women gained full ownership of property they possessed: the Hindu Succession Act ended their status as limited owners of such property [4,8,9]. [4][8][9]
• From 2005, daughters gained the same right as sons to be joint family property holders by birth, giving them equal claims to coparcenary property [4,11]. [4][11]
• The Law Commission recorded that the earlier exclusion of daughters from coparcenary ownership had led to oppression and negation of their fundamental right to equality, a harm the 2005 amendment was intended to remove [5]. [5]
• The Hindu Marriage Act introduced radical changes in divorce and judicial separation, altering what remedies spouses could obtain [3]. [3]
• The Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act made the welfare of the minor the paramount consideration for courts appointing guardians, rather than simply a family claim [1]. [1]

Step by step

1. 1951
   The Hindu Code Bill was shelved after facing very stiff resistance from various orthodox sections of society [6]. [6]
2. 1954
   Pandit Jawahar Lal Nehru, defending the introduction of the Hindu Code Bill rather than a uniform civil code in Parliament, said: "I do not think that at the present moment the time is ripe in India for me to try to push it through" [12]. [12]
3. 1955
   Parliament passed the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, which introduced radical changes in divorce and judicial separation while keeping some marriage restrictions [3]. [3]
4. 1956
   Parliament passed the Hindu Succession Act, 1956. Its section 14 made property possessed by a female Hindu her absolute property, not limited ownership [4,8]. [4][8]
5. 1956
   Parliament passed the Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, 1956. It set out natural guardians for Hindu minors and made the welfare of the minor the paramount consideration in court appointments [1]. [1]
6. 1956
   Parliament passed the Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act, 1956 [2,3]. [2][3]
7. 2005
   The Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005 (Act 39 of 2005) amended section 6 so that a daughter of a coparcener becomes a coparcener by birth in the same manner as a son, with the same rights and liabilities [4,11]. [4][11]
8. 2005-08-29
   During the motion for consideration of the 2005 amendment, Parliament recorded that the earlier Hindu Code Bill had faced very stiff resistance and was shelved in 1951 [6]. [6]

The documents

1. [1] The Hindu Minority And Guardianship Act, 1956 - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org
2. [2] 207Th Report On Proposal To Amend Section 15 Of The Hindu ... Court, indiankanoon.org
3. [3] Hindu Marriage Act,1955 And Special Marriage Act, 1954 Court, indiankanoon.org
4. [4] The Hindu Succession Act, 1956 - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org
5. [5] 204Th Report On Proposal To Amend The Hindu Succession Act ... Court, indiankanoon.org
6. [6] Motion For Consideration Of The Hindu Succession (Amendment ... Court, indiankanoon.org
7. [7] Section 15 in The Hindu Succession Act, 1956 - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org
8. [8] Section 14 in The Hindu Succession Act, 1956 - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org
9. [9] Section 14 (1) in The Hindu Succession Act, 1956 - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org
10. [10] Section 16 in The Hindu Succession Act, 1956 - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org
11. [11] Section 6 in The Hindu Succession Act, 1956 - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org
12. [12] Smt. Sarla Mudgal, President, Kalyani & ... vs Union Of India ... Court, indiankanoon.org

Compiled from the documents cited, 1 Oct 2026

What was done

The Central Government, through the State Bank of India Act, 1955, took over the Imperial Bank of India. On 1 July 1955, the appointed day, the Imperial Bank's shares were transferred to the Reserve Bank of India and its undertaking to the newly constituted State Bank of India. Shareholders registered immediately before that day were entitled to compensation under the First Schedule.

What it meant for the country

The Act transferred the Imperial Bank to state ownership and required the new State Bank to open at least 400 additional branches within five years, but the sources do not record the compensation actually paid or the consequences for shareholders.

• The State Bank was required to establish not less than 400 branches in addition to the Imperial Bank's existing branches within five years of the appointed day, and no such branch could be closed without the previous approval of the Reserve Bank. [1][10]
• The Central Government was required to hold at all times not less than 51 per cent of the issued capital consisting of equity shares of the State Bank. [5]
• Shareholders of the Imperial Bank were entitled to compensation in accordance with the First Schedule, but the amount of compensation is not stated in the sources. [7][8]

Step by step

1. 1955
   The Act provided that every person who immediately before the appointed day was registered as a holder of shares in the Imperial Bank was entitled to compensation in accordance with the provisions contained in the First Schedule. [7][8]
2. 1955-06-23
   The State Bank of India (Amendment) Ordinance, 1955 was promulgated, before the appointed day of 1 July 1955. [1][10]
3. 1955-07-01
   The appointed day under the State Bank of India Act, 1955, on which the Act came into force. [1][10]
4. 1955-07-01
   On the appointed day, all shares in the capital of the Imperial Bank were transferred to and vested in the Reserve Bank, free of all trusts, liabilities and encumbrances, and the undertaking of the Imperial Bank was transferred to and vested in the State Bank. [1][10][12]
5. 1955-07-01
   On the appointed day, the issued capital of the State Bank was five crores, sixty-two lakhs and fifty thousand rupees divided into five lakhs, sixty-two thousand and five hundred shares, all of which stood allotted to the Reserve Bank in lieu of the shares of the Imperial Bank transferred to it. [5]

The documents

1. [1] The State Bank Of India Act, 1955 - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org
2. [2] Section 50 in The State Bank Of India Act, 1955 - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org
3. [3] Section 3 in The State Bank Of India Act, 1955 - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org
4. [4] Section 1 in The State Bank of India Act, 1955 - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org
5. [5] Section 5 in The State Bank Of India Act, 1955 - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org
6. [6] Section 76 in State Bank of India General Regulations, 1955 Court, indiankanoon.org
7. [7] Section 9 in The State Bank Of India Act, 1955 - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org
8. [8] Section 9 (1) in The State Bank Of India Act, 1955 Court, indiankanoon.org
9. [9] Section 49 in The State Bank of India Act, 1955 - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org
10. [10] The State Bank Of India Act, 1955 - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org
11. [11] Section 8 in The State Bank Of India Act, 1955 - Indian Kanoon Court, indiankanoon.org
12. [12] Section 6 (1) in The State Bank Of India Act, 1955 Court, indiankanoon.org

Compiled from the documents cited, 1 Oct 2026

What was done

Parliament enacted the Working Journalists and other Newspaper Employees (Conditions of Service) and Miscellaneous Provisions Act in 1955. The Central Government made the rules under the Act in 1957. It constituted wage boards as and when necessary for working journalists and non-journalist employees, and Parliament amended the Act in 1996.

What it meant for the country

The law and rules secured wage-fixing and gratuity rights for press workers, which is a gain for their working conditions.

• The Act gave working journalists a right to gratuity equal to fifteen days' average pay for every completed year of service (or part exceeding six months) when their services were terminated, they retired, or they died, after at least three years of continuous service. [6]
• The 1957 rules entitled working journalists to wages on holidays and during casual leave as if they were on duty. [3]
• Wage boards were required to include three representatives of employers, three of employees, and four independent persons, one being a former or sitting High Court or Supreme Court judge as chairman, giving workers a voice in wage-setting. [1][2]
• The rules overrode inconsistent agreements, ensuring the protections could not be contracted away, while allowing more favourable benefits to stand. [3]

Step by step

1. 1955
   The Working Journalists and other Newspaper Employees (Conditions of Service) and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1955 was passed, extending to the whole of India. [2][4]
2. 1957
   The Central Government made the Working Journalists (Conditions of Service) and Miscellaneous Provisions Rules, 1957 under section 29 of the Act. [3]
3. 1961-07-01
   Section 5 of the Act made gratuity payable for voluntary resignation on or after 1 July 1961 in specified cases. [6][12]
4. 1996-01-01
   The Working Journalists and Other Newspaper Employees (Conditions of Service) and Miscellaneous Provisions (Amendment) Act, 1996 (Act 34 of 1996) was published and commenced. [11]

The documents

1. [1] Section 13C in The Working Journalists And Other Newspaper ... Court, indiankanoon.org
2. [2] The Working Journalists And Other Newspaper Employees ... Court, indiankanoon.org
3. [3] The Working Journalists (Conditions Of Service) And ... Court, indiankanoon.org
4. [4] Section 1 (1) in The Working Journalists And Other Newspaper ... Court, indiankanoon.org
5. [5] Section 2 in The Working Journalists And Other Newspaper ... Court, indiankanoon.org
6. [6] Section 5 in The Working Journalists And Other Newspaper ... Court, indiankanoon.org
7. [7] Section 17 in The Working Journalists And Other Newspaper ... Court, indiankanoon.org
8. [8] The Working Journalists And Other Newspaper Employees ... Court, indiankanoon.org
9. [9] Section 13C in The Working Journalists And Other Newspaper ... Court, indiankanoon.org
10. [10] Section 2 (a) in The Working Journalists And Other Newspaper ... Court, indiankanoon.org
11. [11] The Working Journalists And Other Newspaper Employees ... Court, indiankanoon.org
12. [12] Section 5 in The Working Journalists And Other Newspaper ... Court, indiankanoon.org

Compiled from the documents cited, 1 Oct 2026